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TIME: Almanac of the 20th Century
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1920
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<text>
<title>
(1920s) Germany
</title>
<history>
TIME--The Weekly Newsmagazine--1920s Highlights
</history>
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<source>Time Magazine</source>
<hdr>
Germany
</hdr>
<body>
<p> [As with domestic events, the 1920s began with the effects of
policies decided on in the previous decade: the provisions of
the Versailles Treaty that formally by the Hohenzollern and
Wittelsbach factions; the Communists, whose opposition to the
Government was equal to that Monarchists; the Democratic and
Center Parties, both of whom were a minus quantity so far as the
Government was concerned. The cessation of passive resistance
was an opportunity for the various Parties to get together (or
to act separately) and overthrow the Government. The appointment
of a military Dictatorship forestalled such moves. The
Government had to take a strong stand to keep itself in power
and, with this in view, made Dr. Otto Gessler Military Dictator
of Germany.
</p>
<p> Hitler and Ludendorff took advantage of the chaotic situation
in Bavaria to stage what would become known as the "Beer Hall
Putsch.]
</p>
<p>(NOVEMBER 19, 1923)
</p>
<p> Under cover of darkness General Erich von Ludendorff,
flagitous, inscrutable, unrelenting, sallied forth into the
streets of Munich, capital of Bavaria, accompanied by his
faithful Austrian, Herr Adolf Hitler, to make a coup for the
Hohenzollerns by way of celebrating Nov. 9, the fifth
anniversary of the abdication of the then Kaiser of Doron.
</p>
<p> With unerring instinct they led their men to a beer-house,
called the Burgerbrau Keller, famed Bavarian cellar. Within was
Bavarian Dictator von Kahr, Minister President von Knilling,
Minister of Interior Schweier and some others. The door opened
and in walked Herr Hitler and General von Ludendorff with some
of their followers, who fired a few shots into the ceiling by
way of effect. Herr Hitler declared the Bavarian Government had
been superseded and elected himself not only head of Bavaria but
Chancellor of all Germany.
</p>
<p> Everything seemed to be "going" well enough. The people
cheered Ludendorff when he swaggered in or out of anywhere. The
Hitler storm troops were in possession of the city and the sun
was shining brightly on the following day. "Chancellor" Hitler
and "Commander-in-Chief" von Ludendorff were within the War
Office when the loyal Bavarian Reichswehr, commanded by the
"disloyal" (to Berlin) General von Lossow, stormed the building,
and after a short battle the "beer hall revolt" was crushed.
</p>
<p> In Berlin the news of the coup was received with undisguised
alarm, despite subsequent contrary statements. President Ebert
issued an appeal to the nation, an emergency Cabinet meeting was
held, troops were ordered out by General von Seeckt,
Commander-in-Chief of the Reichswehr. Hardly had this been done
when the news was flashed from Munich that the revolt had been
crushed.
</p>
<p> Meanwhile in Munich Dr. von Kahr and General von Lossow
quickly restored order. Ministered President von Knilling and
Minister of Interior Schweier were released and resumed their
duties. Herr Hitler escaped from his enemies without hurt, but
was found several days later hiding in the house of one, Ernst
Franz Hanfstaengl, said to be a Harvard graduate and former
Manhattan art dealer. Ludendorff was captured by the Reichswehr,
but released after having given his parole not to plot against
the Bavarian Government. Once free, however, he determined not
to become the scapegoat of a beer-house brawl. With
characteristic defiance he declared that he was bound only by
his honor to refrain from attacking the Government while his
and Hitler's conduct were under consideration. Beyond that he
considered himself free to work for the Hohenzollern's return.
</p>
<p>(APRIL 7, 1924)
</p>
<p> There came an end to the treason trial at Munich.
Feldmarschall Erich von Ludendorff (flagitous, inscrutable,
unrelenting) was acquitted of all blame for his part in the
so-called "Beer Hall" uprising of last Fall.
</p>
<p> The General appeared for his final day in court equipped in
full military regalia with numerous orders, decorations. His
acquittal was attributed to the strong feeling of favor which
he had worked up as result of making no attempt to hide his
Nationalistic sentiment.
</p>
<p> Adolf Hitler, the other prime investigator of the revolt,
together with former Chief of Police Peohner, was sentenced to
five years of confinement in a fortress and fined 200 gold
marks. Since it was understood, however, that he will be obliged
to serve only six months--and then receive a parole for good
behavior, his followers received the verdict with loud approval,
signalled it from the house-tops with wig-wagging, deluged
Hitler and Ludendorff with floral tributes.
</p>
<p> [The reparations mess was finally put on a more rational basis
in the spring of 1924, after two American envoys, Charles Dawes
(who would become Calvin Coolidge's Vice President) and Owen
Young, headed up two committees of experts to assess
realistically Germany's ability to pay and to work out a
reasonable schedule of payments. The experts sensibly
recommended that the German currency be stabilized by creation
of a single gold-backed national bank, and that reparations
payments be on a sliding scale indexed to the country's overall
prosperity. That proved satisfactory even to France, which
finally promised to begin evacuation of occupied territory. A
year and a half later, the Locarno Security Treaty, signed by
Germany, France, Britain and Italy, guaranteed the
demilitarization of the Rhineland and promised that France and
Germany would never go to war again.]
</p>
<p>(APRIL 21, 1924)
</p>
<p> The Reparations Commission approved tentatively the experts'
reports. France, Belgium and Britain were expected to approve
the report in principle. The attitude of Germany was uncertain,
but the general view in Europe was that Germany will accept
because of the tremendous benefits the reports will shower upon
her, such as:
</p>
<p> 1) Fixation of taxation at a figure consonant with the burdens
being borne by foreign countries.
</p>
<p> 2) Guarantee of territorial integrity (if France gives up her
economic hold on the Ruhr).
</p>
<p> 3) Harnessing German industrialists to the yoke of
reparations payments, which they have hitherto evaded.
</p>
<p> 4) Stabilization of currency and balancing of budget. France
was expected to agree to the "economic evacuation" of the Ruhr,
providing that the guarantees contained in the report of No. 1
Committee meet her requirements.
</p>
<p>(FEBRUARY 15, 1926)
</p>
<p> Hundreds of torches flamed in the great square before the
Cathedral of Cologne. Over 100,000 Rhinelanders waited
breathlessly for the largest church bell in Europe to toll the
hour of midnight--to announce that the last Allied soldier had
actually departed from the First Rhineland Occupied Zone. Slowly
the great bell teetered on its pivots, causing a faint squeak
to be broadcast over the radio to all Germany by the great
Koenigswusterhausen Station. Then came the triumphant clang of
the clapper itself, followed by the roar of the crowds.
"Deutschland! Deutschland ueber Alles!" they chanted, and then
joined in the old hymn "Grosser Gott, wir loben Dich." Lifting
their hands they took an oath to German unity proposed by Herr
Adenauer, Ober-Burgomaster of Cologne. From President von
Hindenburg at Berlin came a message which the Herr
Ober-Burgomaster read amid acclaim: "At midnight the hour of
freedom strikes for the first zone of the Rhineland...May the
day of freedom soon dawn over the whole occupied territory!"
Where?
</p>
<p> Foreign Minister Stresemann made good use of the kindly
feelings engendered in German hearts by the evacuation of
Cologne. While the Rhineland celebration was still at its
height, Herr Stresemann publicly announced that but for the
Locarno Pacts the Allies would have delayed still longer before
evacuating Cologne. Ergo, it behooved Germany to hurry up and
enter the League of Nations as provided in the Locarno treaties.
Next day the astute Herr Stresemann convoked the Foreign
Relations Committee of the Reichstag, demanded and received its
authority to apply unconditionally to the League for Germany's
admittance.
</p>
<p> [A renewed reparations crisis erupted in 1929, because the
earlier plan had fixed the annual payments but not the number
of years Germany would have to go on paying. Young returned and
crafted another compromise, one that spelled out Germany's total
cash debt at $8.8 billion; paid out over the interminable period
of 58 years, that would amount, with interest, to $27 billion.
This sum was actually $116 billion less than the Allies had
originally demanded at Versailles.
</p>
<p> The Young Plan also created the Swiss-based Bank for
International Settlements to handle the large amounts of money
involved in the reparations scheme. The B.I.S. still exists, one
of Europe's and the world's important financial institutions.
Reparations, of course, were repudiated by Adolf Hitler along
with the rest of the Versailles Treaty in 1935.]</p>
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